NOTE: The notation (su1) means that the data is used in the document analyzing the sustainability of the productivity of the world's food, fiber and water supply systems. (See elsewhere in this website.)
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NOTE: The issue of de facto urbanization of cropland via reallocation of irrigation water to urban uses is examined in the Review of the Global Literature on Irrigated Land Degradation.

Estimates of non-agricultural use of land per thousand persons range from 22 ha in India (Katyal et al., 1997), to 15-28 ha in China (98A1) and to 60 ha in the US (94W2). The magnitude of future conversions of land for urban uses is not certain, nor how much of it will be good arable land. There is no doubt, however, that losses could be substantial.

Between 1973-1985 Egypt lost 13% of its farmland to urban sprawl (Harrison, 1992) (FAO data). Egypt's arable and permanent cropland in 1993 (28,000 km²) was the same as in 1974-76 and less than that in 1969-1971 (FAO, 1995) (Harrison, P., "The third revolution: Environment, population and a sustainable world", London, I. B. Tauris. (1992)).

Nile River drainage croplands lost to cities, roads, factories and military installations: 260 km²/ year (Ref.8 of (78B1)).

Some 80 km² of land in Egypt have been stripped of soil for making mud bricks since Aswan Dam went in during 1965 (85K1). Comments: Egypt closed off Aswan High Dam at Lake Nassar in 1965 ((93W2), p. 20).

In China + Japan + South Korea + Taiwan, non-farm uses claim 5000 km²/ year of cropland ((90B2), Ref. 25).

Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan grain-area dropped over 20% the 10 years between 1980-84 and 1990-1994 (96G1). East Asia, as a whole, lost nearly 10% of its harvested grain area in that decade (Ref. 7 of (96G1)).

Land available for agricultural production in Japan decreased 6% during the 1960s ((78B1), Ref. 9).

A comprehensive 1968 zoning plan put all land into one of three categories - industrial, agricultural and "other" (88B4). Japan has some of the strongest agricultural-land protection laws in the world (94B3). Over the past few decades, grain-land has been converted to non-farm use (and to a lesser extent, fruit- and vegetable-growing). Japan has lost 52% of its grain-land. From its peaks, grain production has fallen 33% (94B3) and (Ref.12 of (94B4)).

Japan, South Korea and Taiwan have collectively lost 40% of the grain harvest area they had in 1960 (95B1).

Rate of loss of cultivable land to urbanization: 130 km²/ year (p. 85 of (81G2)). Over the past few decades, grain-land has been converted to non-farm use (and to a lesser extent, fruit- and vegetable-growing). South Korea has lost 42% of its grain-land. From its peak, South Korea's grain production has fallen 31% (94B3), (Ref. 12 of (94B4)).

Over the past few decades, Taiwan's grain-land has been converted to non-farm use (and to a lesser extent, fruit- and vegetable-growing). Taiwan has lost 35% of its grain land. From its peak, grain production has fallen 19% (94B3), (Ref. 12 of (94B4)). Taiwan's grain-land = 8500 km² in 1975, 5000 km² in 1993 (Ref. 11, Chapter 7 of (94B4)).

The number of China's cities has grown from 132 in 1949 to 668 in 1999 and the urban percent of the population has grown from 12% to 30%. Cities account for 18% of China's total land area in 1999, vs. 7.6% in 1984. ("Steady Growth of Urbanization in China", Xinhua (8/31/99)).

China loses 8100 km²/ year (due to urbanization and erosion??) of its 972,000 km² of cropland as they add 12 million people/ year (91B3). In each of the past 3 years nearly 10,000 km² of cropland has been lost (about 1% of China's cropland/ year) (94B3), (Ref.7, Chapter 7 of (94B4)).

During the past 3 decades, China lost 5000 km²/ year of arable land to other uses (Ref.29 of (95R1)). In 1992, 6670 km² of China's farmland were taken out of cultivation (Ref.29 of (95R1)). Comments: Note the disparity between (95K2) and (95R1). Possibly the discrepancy could be explained by cropland abandonment, forest expansion and pasture expansion -See Reference (97G1) below.

In 1988-1989, China lost over 10,000 km² of cultivated land, 16% to urban, industrial or infrastructural use. The rest went to forests, grasslands, orchards and fishponds. The 1990s rate of cropland loss is, so far, much higher (Ref. 8 of (96G1)).

About 65,000 km² of China's arable land were pulled from production during 1987-1992 (Ref.16 of (96G2)). New lands were bought into production during 1987-1992, so China's net arable-land loss was 38,700 km² (3%) during 1987-1992 (96G2).

In China, 3000 km²/ year are lost to urbanization (96M1).

Land for non-agricultural uses in India is expected to grow from 162,000 km² in 1970 to 260,000 km² by 2000. Much of this expansion is expected to be at the expense of croplands (Ref. 7 of (78B1)) (Ref. 8 of (78B2)).

Cropland in Indonesia is being lost to urban growth at a rate of 200 km²/ year on Java alone (95B1) (USDA report).

A 1990 World Bank study found that Indonesia needs 100 km²/ year of agricultural land just for house lots (96G1).

Sub-Part [A5b] ~ Urbanization ~ Southeast Asia ~ Thailand ~

Some 32 km²/ year of Thailand's cropland are lost to urban sprawl (Ref. 8, Chapter 7, of (94B4)). Thailand's grain area dropped 10% since 1985 (Ref. 12 of Chapter 7 of (94B4)).

Sub-Part [A5c] ~ Urbanization ~ Southeast Asia ~ Vietnam ~

Cropland loss rate in Vietnam: 200 km²/ year (96G2).

In 1995, the Vietnamese government banned conversion of rice paddies to non-farm uses (96G2).

Part [A6] ~ Urbanization ~ Middle East ~

Part [Ba] ~ Urbanization ~ US Land-Use Changes ~

Approximately 34 million acres of open space in the US were lost to development from 1982 through 2001 according to an analysis by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Forest Service, and the rate of loss, particularly due to residential development, is quickening.

Some 4.5 million Americans lived in gated communities in 2005, up 13.7% since 2001.

The Land and Water Conservation Fund, a federal program that provides matching funds for parkland development, was cut 75% from 2002 to 2006. The Bush administration's proposed budget for the fund for fiscal year 2008 eliminates grants to states for local park projects.

City planners generally use 10 acres of parkland per 1000 people as a rule of thumb for necessary green space. Some per-1000-people data:

Cropland is twice as likely as non-cropland to be urbanized (76P2). Comments: This statement is probably to be interpreted as: The percentage rate of cropland urbanization is twice as large as the percentage rate of non-cropland urbanization. If so, other information suggests a ratio several times larger.

Over 50% of all US agricultural production comes from countries on the edge of cities. In the US, just over 18% of all rural land is classified as prime farmland, but within 50 miles of the largest urban areas, 27% is prime (96G2).

During 1910-1950, 153,000 km² in the US were absorbed by towns, cities, and urban/ industrial developments (Wooten, 1953) (56G2). Comments: This indicates a US urbanization rate of 3900 km²/ year during 1910-1950.

Of 24,000 km² of prime farmland lost on a net basis in the US during 1982-1992, 2/3 were converted to rural- and urban developments (Ref. 10 of (96G1)).

US cropland loss (1982-1992) was just under 20,000 km² net (96G2). In the US during 1982-1992, 1680 km² of croplands were urbanized annually (96G2).

Over 4000 km² of US land is lost annually to urbanization, of which about half are from arable land now in cultivation (97P1).

A report by David Pimemtal at an early-1995 annual meeting of the AAAS, said that the US loses 4000 km²/ year of agricultural land to urbanization, and 8000 to erosion and salinization (See Pittsburgh. Post Gazette (2/19/95)).

Over 72 million acres (291,000 km²) of US land have been lost to highways and urbanization. About half of this was originally cropland (76P2).

The US Department of Agriculture estimates that 3900 km²/ year are converted from agricultural use or undeveloped status to developed, non-agricultural use (____). (during 1910-1950?)

The net increase of 56,570 km² of developed land in the US during 1982-1992 came from the net conversion of 10,000 km² of pastureland, 9,000 km² of rangeland, 22,000 km² of forestland, and 16,000 km² of cropland (1992 NRI) (94K2).

Since 1967 nearly 235,000 km² of US agricultural land has been converted to other uses (86U1). Comments: This implies a conversion rate of 13,000 km²/ year during 1967-1985.

About 12,000 km² of US rural land are lost to non-farm purposes yearly. About 4000 of these are prime (Class I and II) farmland (80U2).

A new USDA study shows America's conservation efforts falling short. Secretary Dan Glickman 12/7/99 called for a renewed national commitment to preserving private land. From 1992-1997, 3.2 million acres/ year of forest and agricultural land were lost, double the rate from 1982-92. (Wall St. Journal (12/8/99)) (Reuters, 12/7/99) Comments: The USDA study referred to was the Natural Resource Inventory (NRI) which is disputed by another study. Less than 5% of the US landmass of 2400 million acres is developed. [vs. David Pimental's figure of 11%.]~ (PRN Newswire (12/10/99))

(See http://www.nass.usda.gov/census)
(See http://www.nhq.nrcs.usda/gov/NRI/1997/summary_report/original/ contents.html
(See http://www.heritage.org/library/backgrounder/bg1368.html)
(See http://www.ncpa.org/pd/state/state4.html)

* (20,200 km²/ year)

The net rate of US cropland conversion to other uses is subject to dispute. SCS data indicate 103,000 km² were converted in the 8 years 1967-1975 (14,200 km²/ year). The NRI data series indicates that 2733 km²/ year of cropland were converted to other uses in 1967-1975. This difference (factor of 5) is analyzed, and it was concluded that a cropland conversion rate of around 12,000 km²/ year is more accurate. The adjusted NRI conversion rate from (farm + ranch) uses is 22,300 km²/ year (1967-1975). Census data for 1969-1978 shows a rate of decline in US land in farms of 39,700 km²/ year (81C1), (81G1). Typically, half of these rates pertains to croplands ((81G1), p. 32-37).

During 1967-1975, 93,000 km² of agricultural land were converted to non-agricultural use (10,300 km²/ year) (NALS, 1981) ((84U2), p. 59). Some 3600 km²/ year of croplands and potential croplands were urbanized (NALS, 1981) (84U2). US prime farmland decreased by 5700 km² (0.4%) during 1982-1987 according to a NRI study (89G2). US developed land increased by 16,200 km² (5.5%) during the 5 years 1982-87.

During 1945-1975, 180,000 km² of arable land was lost to urbanization, in the US ((80P2), Ref. 34). (6000 km²/ year).

(75U1) cites a Citizens Advisory Committee on Environmental Quality statement that prime (Class I and II) agricultural land are urbanized at a rate of 5670 km²/ year.

The 1975 rate of conversion of current- and potential US cropland to urban and other non-agricultural uses was 3644 km²/ year, 2730 of which came from the current cropland base. 2/3 of the land converted was prime (Class I and II) cropland, or could have been classified as such if it were cropped ((81B1), p. 83).

During 1939-1978, a third of the croplands in the northeastern and southeastern US was converted to other uses, whereas all other parts of the country gained cropland. Much of this eastern cropland loss went into forests due to industrial competition for labor (83B1).

A NALS study by Brewer and Boxley found 3540 km²/ year of actual or potential US cropland were converted to urban uses during 1967-1975 (83B1).

Some 125,500 km² of US farmland have been lost to development or other uses during the past decade (12,550 km²/ year). 68,800 of these have become residential or commercial development; 28,340 of these have become water bodies (78C1).

Two USDA surveys (1967 and 1975) indicate that 25,000 km² (1 million acres) of prime US cropland were converted to urban and built-up uses during the 8 years 1967-1975 ((85B2), p. 25) (78B2) (3,100 km²/ year). Comments: Some sort of conversion error here (1 million acres = 4000 km²).

The US loses 10,000 km²/ year of arable cropland to highways, urbanization and other special uses ((76P2), Ref. 9). The loss is partially offset by irrigation and drainage of 5061 km²/ year of newly developed cropland. Since 1945, total US loss to highways, urbanization and other special uses was 182,000 km² ((76P2), Ref. 9).

Some 117,000 km², mostly agricultural land, shifted to urban- and built-up uses, or were committed to those uses during 1967-1977. Another 4000 km² changed to small water areas. Croplands declined 73,000 km²; irrigated acreage increased 56,700 km². Pasture, native pasture and rangeland increased 138,000 km². Non-federal forestland decreased 300,000 km². Land in other uses increased 109,000 km² (All figures exclude Alaska) (79D1).

The US has 364,000 km² of urban- and built-up lands (79D1). (la)

About 162,000 km² of US land has been converted to urban uses to date. About half of this land was formerly in cropland.

About 130,000 km² of US land have been covered by roads (76P2). (la)

Strip mining in the US directly disturbs at least 619 km²/ year, and the total area disturbed by strip mining can be 3-5 times more wide-spread than the area actually exploited ((76P2), Ref. 16) (i.e. 1900-3100 km²/ year can be disturbed).

The ground swell of interest in farmland preservation signals a desire among many country- and city folk to have more say in future land-use decisions. As in the case of soil erosion, many people have come to the belief that the market place cannot be relied upon to protect the resource (81C1). A poll of agriculture staff members in state legislatures around the US found farmland preservation to be among the 3-4 top issues on the agricultural agendas of 24 states. There are 90 federal programs that reduce the availability of land for agricultural production (81C1). Comments: Data on US urban (developed) land are found in Section (2-E-c).

Part [Bb] ~ Urbanization ~ US Land-Use Inventories

Total developed, non-agricultural land in 1964 was over 0.349 million km² (USDA data) (Total area of the conterminous US is 7.70 million km²; total area of all 50 states is 9.1 million km². These figures omit 202,000 km² of inland water.)

Metropolitan areas of the US in 1975 contained 20.2% of the nation's prime (Class I and II) agricultural land. These areas and the rings of counties surrounding them contain 51.7% of the prime agricultural land in the US (79C2). See Table 1 on p. 30 - concentration of prime farmland in metropolitan areas. Ref. (79C2) contains a good discussion of urbanization of agricultural lands on urban fringes.

Airports in the US occupied 7126 km² of land in 1968 and 10,121 km² today (86U1). Divided highways consume 41 acres/ mile. Such highways increased from 25,000 to 50,000 miles during 1964-77 (86U1). (4150 km² in 1964 and 8300 km² in 1977) 40,500 US km² have been covered by impounded water (56G2). (la)

Sub-Part [Bc1] ~ Urbanization ~ Far West ~

[Bc1a] ~ Urbanization ~ Far West ~ California ~

California predicts a 40% loss in agricultural land, with a corresponding increase of food costs by 4-5 fold, during the next 20 years. Based on USDA data for prime cropland loss in CA during 1992-97 (the period for their study). http://www.nhq.nrcs.usda.gov/land/programs/intro.html 3/19/00.

Fresno County California (the top agriculture-producing county in the US) lost 2136 acres (8.65 km²) (of cropland?) during 1994-98 (3 times the loss in 1992-1994). (Fresno Bee (8/12/98)) Comments: What is total area of Fresno County?

At current rates, California will lose 16% of its prime farmland to other uses by 2000 ((81B3), p. 27). Rate of cropland conversion to urban use = 178 km²/ year (86U1).

Urbanization of irrigable farmland in the San Joaquin Valley is projected to consume 1648 km² during 1972-2000 (Ref. 106 of (81S2)).

Over the past 5 years, California has lost 223 km²/ year of prime agricultural land to urban development. During the same 5 years, 75% of the newly irrigated acres were "medium- and low-potential land" (Class III and IV) (Ref. 107 of (81S2)).

California lost 3% of its cropped area during 1984-1992; over 1/3 was prime cropland (97G1).

During 1984-1992, California lost over 1250 km² of croplands to urban uses (3% of total cropped area) (96G2).

California, which generated nearly $27 billion in 1997 from its farm industry, lost 73 km² of irrigated farmland to urbanization from 1994-96 - a 19% jump from the previous two-year period (98C1).

California's population is predicted to grow from 32 million to 48 million by 2020 (98C1).

Of the 237 new km² of urban land in California, 73 km²-30% - came from irrigated farmland (98C1). A total of 186 km² of irrigated California land were designated as committed to non-agricultural use, up from 157 km² (98C1).

California land committed to future non-agricultural use rose 13%, from 661 km² to 747 km² during 1994-1996 (98C1).

Sub-Part [Bc2] ~ Urbanization ~ Southeast ~

Note: South Florida produces nearly 70% of winter and spring vegetables produced in the US (1995 data).

[Bc2a] ~ Urbanization ~ Southeastern US ~ Florida

At current rates of urbanization, all of Florida's prime farmland will be put to other uses by 2000 ((81B3), p. 27) (86U1).

Florida's farmland urbanization rate: 607 km²/ year (Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 47 (1992) p. 380).

Sub-Part [Bc3] ~ Urbanization ~ Front Range ~

In the past 20 years, 7150 km² of US agricultural land in the Front Range has been converted to other uses. In the next 2 decades, 1538 km² more are expected to be converted to other uses ((82S1), p. 28).

Sub-Part [Bc4] ~ Urbanization ~ Midwest ~

Some 2040 km² of Illinois farmland is expected to be urbanized during the next 25 years (82 km²/ year) ((79B1), p. 85).

Sub-Part [Bc5] ~ Urbanization ~ Northeast ~

[Bc5a] ~ Urbanization ~ Northeastern US ~ New York ~

During 1935-75, New York's wheat acreage decreased 32.6% (from 1034 to 696 km²) due mainly to urbanization, but wheat productivity/ acre increased 100% (50% due to genetic factors and 50% due to technological factors such as fertilizer, pesticides, machinery and herbicides) (78J2).

[Bc5b] ~ Urbanization ~ Northeastern US ~ Pennsylvania ~

Pennsylvania loses 405 km²/ year of prime cropland and pasture-land to non-agricultural uses. Since 1960, state farm acreage has dropped from 49,800 to 40,500 km² (78J1). Art Davis, in his study of Washington County agriculture for W. Pa. Conservancy, concluded (7/13/83) that 518 km² of Pa. farmland are lost yearly, and 170 of these are prime cropland. During 1954-1974, Pennsylvania lost 20,200 km² of farmland to urban developments (78K1). (1012 km²/ year).

At current rates of urbanization, Virginia will lose 24% of its prime cropland to other uses by 2000 ((81B3), p. 27).

Sub-Part [Bc6] ~ Urbanization ~ Great Plains ~

[Bc6a] ~ Urbanization ~ Great Plains ~ Texas ~

Agricultural Statistics, 1998, says Texas irrigated farmland declined from 5.6 to 4.9 million acres over the past decade.

Texas lost more than 2430 km²/ year of cropland of prime farmland to permanent non-agricultural use during 1977-82 (486 km²/ year) (86U1).

Part [Bd] ~ Urbanization ~ Canada ~

During 1966-1971, 4000 km² of cropland (10% of the improved farmland) in southern Ontario was converted to urban sprawl and other non-farm use ((78B1), p.47). Over 60% of land-conversions to urban uses during 1966-1971 in Canada were on Class 1, 2 or 3 croplands, even though only 7% of Canada is farmland (Ref. 9 of (86D1)).

During 1961-1976, Canada lost 14,000 km² of agricultural land to urban uses (about 1000 km²/ year) (84S2).

SECTION (6-C) ~ Urbanization ~ South- and Central America and Europe ~

Part [C1] ~ Urbanization ~ Europe ~

From 1960-70, West Germany was losing agricultural land at 0.25%/ year. France and the UK agricultural lands decreased 0.18%/ year (Ref.6 of (85B2)) (78B2). Comments: This shows the effects of tight land-use controls aimed at reducing urban sprawl.

SECTION (6-D) ~ Urbanization ~ Global ~

Global cropland urbanization rate: 20-40,000 km²/ year (92P2), (94K3).

About 0.5%-1.0%/ year of world's 15 million km² of cultivated land is lost to non-agricultural land uses (housing, transportation, recreation, mining). 5% of formerly cultivated land is occupied by non-agricultural uses ((78B3), p.110). Comments: The 0.5-1.0%/ year figure suggests a conversion rate of 75,000-150,000 km²/ year. This would imply a huge percentage-wise rate of expansion of urban lands, so this data should probably be rejected as improbable.

Los Angeles has fewer people/ square mile than Chicago (13,180), Berlin (8,982), Toronto (14,239), Paris (53,079), Tokyo (38,819), Manhattan (64,922) and London (11,094). Source: Center for Study of Latino Health, UCLA 1999. ("Accommodating Growth, Improving Quality of Life", Los Angeles Times (8/25/99)).

By 2000, mining will have directly disturbed (urbanized) 240,000 km² of the Earth's surface (Johnnie N. Moore, Samuel N. Luoma, Environmental Science and Technology, 24 (1990) pp. 1278-1285). (la)

Urban-land per urban-resident in developing countries is estimated at 0.5 km²/ 1000 people (0.5 million km²/ billion people) (96G2). Comments: Cropland needs are about 3 million km²/ billion people (3000 km²/ million people).

The world's 25,000 golf courses cover 33,000 km² (94P2). (la)

Global water-surface area of dam backwaters: 400,000 km² (90W1). Comments: Since 75% of the world's dams and reservoirs have been built in the past 35 years (90W1), the rate of land loss to dam backwaters is 0.75x400,000/ 35 = 8580 km²/ year. (la)

Residential floor space/ person (1973-1990) has grown about 1.7%/ year. It is currently about 165,000 km² (30 m²/ person) based on Japanese data (See State of the World 1995, p. 100) (95L1). Comments: This neglects commercial, industrial and educational floor space. Extrapolating 30 m²/ person to the Earth's 6 billion inhabitants (1999) implies 180,000 km² of total residential floor space.

One estimate of the rate at which the world's croplands are being converted to urban (i.e. developed) land uses (housing, transportation, recreation, industry, mining, dam backwaters etc.) is 0.5-1.%/ year (78B3). This implies a global rate of cropland conversion to urban land of 75,000-150,000 km²/ year. Information on grazing land- and forestland conversion is less adequate that that for cropland. An estimate of grazing- and forestland urbanization comes from the observation (81G1) that croplands contribute about 50% of the land being urbanized in the US. Assuming this is valid globally, and assuming the world's 32.7 million km² of grazing lands and 40.4 million km² of forest lands contribute to the remaining 50% of the urbanization according to their relative areas, this produces a grazing-lands (and forest lands) urbanization rate of 0.1-0.2%/ year.

Note however that the "agricultural" land on which this 64,900 km²/ year conversion occurs is measured to contain 27.89 million km² whereas the world's cropland inventory is only 15.1 million km². The reason for the difference is that "agricultural" land the satellite sees is a fine mosaic of cropland and other types of land. Thus the conversion rate of cropland should be (15.1/27.89)*64,900 = 35,100 km²/ year (0.23%/ year). This computed cropland conversion to urban land falls within the range (20-40,000 km²/ year) given in (92P2) and (94K3). These rates can also be compared to the western European rate of loss of agricultural lands to urbanization (0.25%/ year in West Germany and 0.18%/ year in France and the UK (85B2) and probably a somewhat higher rate for croplands). Japan urbanizes agricultural land at 0.6%/ year (78B1), but this rate probably reflects the abnormally high rate of economic growth there at that time. The US urbanization rate for cropland is 0.2%/ year (See top of Section (5 -C-d) - Pimental).

Typically topsoil contains about 2% (by weight) organic carbon (95P1) (more in temperate regions; less in tropical soils). Cultivated lands contain 7900 tonnes carbon/ km² (82P2) (presumably all in topsoil). This implies a global average of 400,000 tonnes of topsoil/ km² on cropland. So the above rates of non-irrigated-cropland area loss to urbanization convert to a topsoil loss rate of 14 Gt. / year from non-irrigated croplands.

Proportioning urbanization-related losses between irrigated and non-irrigated cropland is difficult due to lack of data. Since irrigated croplands are so much more valuable and productive than non-irrigated croplands, it seems logical to assume that essentially all direct cropland conversions occur on non-irrigated croplands. This is optimistic in areas like Egypt where nearly all cropland is irrigated. Growing urban water needs are taking water away from irrigated lands. US data indicate that this is a far-from-negligible effect. This "indirect" urbanization of irrigated croplands is considered in the review of irrigated lands degradation.

The grassland urbanization rate of 27,270 km²/ year must also be converted to a conversion rate for grazing lands. The grassland area upon which this conversion occurs was measured, by satellite, to be 53.544 million km² vs. a global grazing land (permanent pasture) inventory of 33.645 million km² (96W2). However in this case the non-grazed grassland is almost invariably far removed from urban areas (e.g. 10 million km² of tundra and alpine meadows) so it seems reasonable to assume that virtually all of this 27,270 km²/ year (0.081%/ year) occurs on grazing land.

The forestland conversion rate, 25,110 km²/ year, was assumed to occur on 29.905 million km² of forest. This is clearly measuring only closed forest. The conversion rate for the roughly 8 million km² of open woodlands is probably buried in the conversion rate for "agricultural" land, grassland and "other" land.